A Study On Computer Aided Design

A Study On Computer Aided Design Before the 1070s, nearly every drawing produced in the world done with pencil or ink on paper. Minor changes require erasing and redrawing while major changes often meant recreating the drawing from the scratch. A change in a drawing will affect the other documents and all of these changes and recognition are done manually which is time consuming (iBM.com, 2003). The introduction of Computer Aided Design (CAD) then makes a change in the way of producing design. CAD is a software application which uses the computer technology in the process of design and design-documentation. Basically, CAD software is used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space, curves, surfaces and solids in three-dimensional (3D) objects. CAD software enables the user to produce better streamlining design, drafting, and documentation and facilitate manufacturing process. It provides output in the form of electronic files and allows the users to get printing copy. CAD software is often used in construction, manufacturing and other industries because it can bring economy to the processes by providing convenience in conveying information in technical and engineering drawings. Examples of information which can be conveyed are materials, processes, dimensions and tolerance. The software helps to produce drafting and design for all types of buildings such as residential houses, hospitals and factories. Besides, the software is also used throughout the engineering process to produce conceptual design and layout for the products and define the strength and dynamic analysis of manufacturing components. There are many CAD software producers such as AutoCAD, Autodesk Inventor, Pro-E Wildfire, Catia and many. CAD ORIGIN/ TERMINOLOGY There are many essential synonymous terms in CAD software. It is sometimes translated as computer-assisted, computer-aided drafting, or a similar phrase. CADD (Computer Aided Design and Drafting) and CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) are other related acronyms. All of these terms have subtle differences in meaning and each is used for different purpose. CAD HISTORY Dr Patrick J. Hanratty developed the first commercial numerical-control programming system in the year 1957. He had greatly contributed to the field of CAD design and manufacturing and he was known as the Father of CAD. In year 1960, Ivan Sutherland produced a project called SKETCHPAD as the first step to CAD industry. SKETCHPAD allowed the designer to interact with computer graphically where the design can be fed into the computer by using a light pen to draw on a monitor. Thus, making it as an indispensable feature of modern CAD software. The first commercial applications of CAD were in large companies in the automotive and aerospace industries as well as in electronics. This was due to only large corporations could afford the computers capable of performing the calculations. In year 1964, Dr Patrick J. Hanratty had utilised Design Augmented by Computer (DAC-1) in his company projects. In year 1971, UNISURF was developed by Pierre BÃ ©zier at Renault. It was a pioneering surface CAD system for car body design and tooling. The founding of Manufacturing and Consulting Services Inc. (MSC) in year 1971 by Dr Patrick J. Hanratty enhanced the development of CAD. He then supplied the codes to many companies such as Control Data, Autotrol, Garber, Calma and many. The application of CAD expanded gradually when computer became affordable. The development of CAD software for personal desktop computers was the momentum for almost universal application in all areas of construction. Key points in the 1960s and 1970s such as IBM, Intergraph and Intergraph IGDS became the foundation of CAD systems. Since then, the implementation of CAD had evolved dramatically. 2D graphic was design with CAD software initially in the 1970s and limited to producing drawings similar to hand-drafted drawings. Variety applications of CAD were allowed when programming and computer hardware became advanced. In year 1982, Autodesk was founded by John Walker which then led to the 2D system AutoCAD. In year 1988, Pro/Engineer was released and required greater usages of feature based modelling methods. The development of graphics engines ShapeData and ACIS at the end of the 1980s inspired by the work of Ian Braid. The inspiration then led to the release of SolidWorks in year 1995 and SolidEdge in year 1996. Today, in 21st century, there are many CAD software products in the market. The famous CAD software producers are Autodesk, PTC, UGS Corp and many. Generally, the package of CAD software can be classified into 3 types, there are 2D drafting systems, mid-range 3D solid feature modellers and high-end 3D hybrid systems. CAD DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA In Malaysia, CAD software has been on the sell since the 1980s. In the mid 1990s, the applications of sophisticated CAD tools with 3D modelling and coloured graphics enhancements had become more common. Since then, the usage of CAD has impacted the professional practice, education and the research associated with architecture tremendously. In the present time, CAD software including CAM is now widely accepted and used throughout the industry. The technology moves from costly workstations to off-the-shelf computers. 3D modelling has become a norm and it can be found even in applications for the wider industry such as house furnishing and garden planning. As the usage of CAD has become part and parcel of the daily running of architecture firms, higher-learning institutions such as universities and colleges have produced great efforts in preparing the built environment market with workforce that is equipped with the essential skills and ability to operate CAD. CAD APPLICATIONS CAD is used to design, develop and optimize products, which can be goods used by end consumers or intermediate goods used in other products. For example, buildings, mechanical and engineering tools, vehicle and transportation and many other product designs. In the field of engineering, CAD allows design and drafting of tools and machinery which are used in the manufacture components. Besides, detailed engineering of 3D models and 2D drawings of physical components can be generated easily by applying CAD. In the field of building architecture, CAD has reduced the need for manual drawing. CAD helps to generate all particulars of a building such as floor plans, sections, elevations, perspectives views and model renderings in a shorter time. The software allows drafting and design of all types of buildings. Besides designing, developing and optimizing products in building and engineering, CAD is also used for business purpose such as the followings: Testing on Conceptual Products CAD eliminates the need to test all of the product design physically. Instead of conducting physically testing, the developers can run virtual tests using CAD which can simulate the same condition. The application of virtual tests is often adopted in the aeronautical company which its testing can be ruinously time consuming and expensive. Idea Generation CAD allows flexible process of idea generation when the limiting factor of prototype manufacture is removed. The enterprises, both employees and potential customers are exposed to more open and new ideas and suggestions. The suggestions for new products then can be tested quickly at a lower cost. Augmentation CAD allows slight improvement on new product designs instantly. It is useful in investigating possible improvements to existing products. Market Testing CAD allows earlier process of market testing because virtual new products can be presented more quickly than physical prototypes and feedback can be obtained instantly. CAD can also be applied in the field of medical to manipulate medical images such as digital x-ray image (DICOM). The application of CAD in the presentation of medical images is still new compared to CAD widely used in the fields that involve with designing of the manufacturing industry products and construction field. CAD PRINCIPAL CAD is one of the many tools most used by engineers and designers. 3D Wire Frame is an extension of 2D drafting. Basically, it possesses similar fashion to the 2D system. Its final product does not have mass properties. Besides, there is no feature directly added to it such as holes. 3D Dumb Solids possesses similar fashion to the way of creating the real world object. This technology has been incorporate into programs such as AutoCAD and Cadkey 19. The principal provides draft views which can be easily generated from the models. However, the changes can only be done by deleting the object or feature and start over. Besides, its assemblies do not include tools which allow motion. 3D Parametric solid modeliling allows the operator to use what is referred to as design intent. Any future modifications to the design will depend on the original part. It may be simple, difficult or nearly impossible. This technology has been incorporate into programs such as Alibre Design, TopSolid, SolidWorks and Solid Edge. KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL COMPETENCIES FOR CAD According to Duan (2006) study, CAD and design engineering users require 7 categories of skills and knowledge as the followings: General knowledge and skills English writing and speaking Communication Critical thinking Problem solving Mathematics and science skills. Interpersonal skills Basic drafting knowledge and skills Basic drafting Descriptive geometry Technical standards Coordinate systems Multiview drawings Isometric drawings Geometric dimensioning and tolerance Basic mechanical drafting Basic architectural drafting Basic civil drafting Computer knowledge and skills Computer fundamentals Computer file management Word processing Computer software Spreadsheets Basic application of internet Basic programming CAD knowledge and skills Major CAD software CAD 2D drawings CAD 3D modelling Basic CAD LISP Programming CAD design project Custimization of CAD program Basic engineering analysis and technical knowledge and skills Special knowledge and skills Design application and practices Special projects in the field Marketing and sales Basic knowledge of laws Troubleshooting skills Teamwork Leadership skills ADVANTAGES OF CAD CAD software offers several advantages which attracts many industry players. Basically, it offers benefits which then can lead to time and cost saving. Both cost and time saving are important especially in the world of business because in the view of commercial man, time is money. First of all, the software has become an important technology in ensuring lower product development costs. Before the 1070s, nearly every drawing produced in the world done with pencil or ink on paper and any change requires erasing and redrawing which will produce waste. CAD software enables the designers to develop their work on screen and allows future editing. Thus, it brings benefits in cost saving instead of redrawing due to minor changes. Besides, the software also ensures short design cycle as it eliminates the needs to redraw when minor changes happen, it brings benefits in time saving. Both cost and time saving in product development can also be achieved by eliminating the need to test all of the product design physically. Instead of conducting physically testing, the developers can run virtual tests using CAD which can simulate the same condition. The application of virtual tests is often adopted in the aeronautical company which its testing can be ruinously time consuming and expensive. Cost saving can be achieved by reducing the number of designers. By using CAD, the professional designers can do the designing work faster and eliminate the need of additional designers. Besides, cost saving also takes place when CAD software offers better and standardised drawings which then facilitate better communications. Moreover, CAD allows quickly and easy design alteration which also lead to faster product development. Faster product development then will lead to increase in productivity of the designer. The software allows understanding on how the actual product works by giving animation to the product so that immediately modifications can be made if required. CAD software helps the designer in synthesizing, analysing and documenting the design. Thus, the productivity of the designer can be improved due to fast designing, low designing cost and shorter completion times. In addition, saving in time and cost does not affect the quality of the design. In fact, CAD can improve the design quality because large number of tools is offered by the software which assists investigation and analysis of the proposed design. Beside, CAD also offers greater accuracy and errors are reduced to give a much better design. This better design can help to carry out faster manufacturing and reduce wastage due to faulty design. DISADVANTAGES OF CAD Although most of the users understand on the advantages brought by CAD, in the mean time, it comes with several disadvantages that the engineer or entrepreneur must understand. These advantages may affect the approach that getting a product on the market. The application of CAD software requires training among the users. This will then costs additional money in the staff training. Besides, its application requires expensive start up costs including hardware, software and training. Computer technology used in CAD is expensive to implement and support the software. Besides, the technology is not constant as new hardware and software programs constantly come on the market and therefore, the users need to keep up with these changes for compatibility reasons. Risk of technology failure must be taken into consideration when implementing CAD as computer used may break down. It then affects the progress of product development which is not favoured in a strict production schedule. The risk is highest when the company relies on assembly-line structure as failure will affect all points of production instead of an isolated production area. Besides, when there break down in computer, all the data saved including CAD copy will be lost. SUMMARY Before the 1070s, all of the design and drawings are produced manually which is time consuming. Thus, the introduction of Computer Aided Design (CAD) has made a change in the way of producing design. CAD is a software application which uses the computer technology in the process of design to produce two-dimensional (2D) space, curves, surfaces and solids in three-dimensional (3D) objects. It is often used in construction, manufacturing and other industries such as the engineering process to produce conceptual design and layout for the products and define the strength and dynamic analysis of manufacturing components. CAD brings advantages to the users, in the mean time, it also brings limitation or draw back. Basically, cost and time saving are the main advantages as design and drawings can be produced faster than manually. However, when there is a technology failure especially computer, it will affect the production line and cause dalay. Therefore, wise decision must be made when adopting CAD in product development and it must take into consideration of factors such as time and cost of the technology transfer as well as the expertise available.

Biological Explanation of Unipolar Depression

One biological explanation for unipolar depression is the monoamine hypothesis. The monoamines are a group of neurotransmitters which include serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine. You will recognise the latter, dopamine, from the biological offering of an explanation for schizophrenia. The monoamines are believed to regulate mood. One of the functions of serotonin is to regulate the other neurotransmitters. Without the regulation provided by serotonin, erratic brain functioning and thinking patterns occur.Low levels of serotonin produces low levels of noradrenaline (a neurotransmitter needed for alertness, energy, anxiety and attention to life). Evidence suggests that low levels of noradrenaline cause depression, and high levels cause mania, which suggests it is involved both in unipolar and bipolar depression. Dopamine is also related to feelings of alertness, motivation and attention, and so it is suggested low levels of dopamine similarly are linked to depression.Essentially the monoamine hypothesis suggests that low levels of dopamine and low levels of noradrenaline result in depressive moods, and low levels of serotonin mean low levels of noradrenaline. It can therefore be low levels of dopamine or noradrenaline that result in depression, or a mixture of both. The hypothesis is used to work with drug treatment, so that the correct drugs (antidepressants) can be prescribed based on the particular monoamine in question. In other words, when a clinician is presented with a patient, they will choose the correct drug that alleviates the presented symptoms of depression.Most antidepressants work by increasing levels of serotonin. It cannot be concluded that the explanation for depression is strictly biological. The diathesis-stress model explains how some mental disorders can have a biological underlying cause but require an environmental trigger to become active. Evaluation: One strength of the biological explanation of depression is that there is further empi rical support provided by Ogilvie et al. (1996). They showed that cells use a gene called SERT to make serotonin transporter protein which plays an important role in the transmission of information between neurons.In most people, part of this gene called the second intron contains 10-12 repeating sections of DNA. However, people with depression, only have 9 repeating sections of DNA. This suggests that there is wider academic support for the idea that serotonin is strongly associated with depression. There is much sound evidence to support the theory, particularly in treatment – if the hypothesis suggests the symptoms are due to monoamine deficiencies and drugs which replace those monoamines alleviate the symptoms, there is evidence for the hypothesis Kraft et al. 2005) studied 96 depressed patients treated over 6 weeks with SNRI (increases levels of noradrenaline) had a reduction in depressive symptoms compared to those treated with a placebo. Leonard (2000) drugs that lower noradrenaline levels have been found to bring about depressive states. Therefore increasing noradrenaline should decrease depressive symptoms . However, The influence of noradrenaline is recognised by the effects of antidepressant drugs which aim to increase levels of noradrenaline.However, these drugs may also affect other neurotransmitters, so it is difficult to find a clear connection and can be interlined with the critiscism that it is difficult to establish cause and effect. It the chemical imbalance in the brains of depressed people the cause of the depression or the effect of depression? This issue is further complicated by the fact that the answer may be different for different types of depression. In endogenous depression perhaps the chemical imbalance comes first, but the other way round in reactive depression.Supporting evidence for the biochemical explanation of depression is that it has practical applications From research into the effectiveness of treatments such as E CT and drugs. ECT supports the biochemical explanation because one shock of 110 volts is passed through the brain of depressives for up to 4 seconds. This results in convulsions of up to 2 mins. 6-9 treatments are given of 2-4 weeks. For 60-70% of people with depression, ECT works quickly and effectively. As drugs and ECT alter the balance of chemicals in the brain, it suggests clinicians can improve the quality of people’s lives.One weakness of the biological explanation of depression is that there are individual differences. Not everyone who suffers from depression is helped by serotonin-based drugs, which suggests that there are other causes of the disorder. It is also not clear why some people become depressed when their serotonin or norepinephrine level is low, whereas others with the low neurotransmitter level remain depression-free. This suggests that the results gained from such research cannot be generalised to the whole population. Another weakness of the research i s that it is biologically deterministics.The reason for this is because it suggests that individuals who have low levels of serotonin are determined to suffer from depression in later life, however, people have a choice about their behaviour and whether they want to do anything about it. This suggests that the biological explanation does not account for free will. A final weakness of the biological explanation of depression is that it is reductionist. The reason for this is because it explains depression in terms of genes (SERT) and neurotransmitters (serotonin) and ignores psychological factors such as learning.This suggests that the biological explanation is oversimplistic when explaining depression. Alternative explanations for depression is cognitive explanations which is accounted by Beck (1974) who , cognitive theories assume that people's attributions for events, their perceptions of control and self-efficacy, and their beliefs about themselves and the world influence their b ehaviors and emotions when reacting to a situation. In general, an individual with various maladaptive beliefs and attitudes becomes more vulnerable to depression because of his or her generalized negative belief pattern.

New Ideas Into How to Write a Term Paper Wiseessays.com Never Before Revealed

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Summary of Iliad Book XVI the Death of Patroclus

This is a crucial book and a turning point because in it Zeus sits idly by knowing his son Sarpedon will be killed, and Achilles friend Patroclus is also killed. Zeus knows that the death of Patroclus will force Achilles to fight for the Greeks (Achaeans/Danaans/Argives). This will allow Zeus to fulfill his promise to Achilles mother, Thetis, to give glory to Achilles. While the fighting goes on around the ship of Protesilaus, Patroclus goes crying to Achilles. He says he is crying for the wounded Greeks, including Diomedes, Odysseus, Agamemnon, and Eurypylus. He prays that he may never be so cruel as Achilles. He asks that Achilles at least let him go to fight with the Myrmidons wearing Achilles armor so that the Trojans might mistake him for Achilles and strike fear into the Trojans and give the Greeks a respite. Achilles again explains his grudge against Agamemnon and his determination to keep his promise to rejoin the battle when it reached his own (50) ships, but now that the fight is so near, he will let Patroclus wear his armor to scare the Trojans and win honor for Achilles, and get Briseis and other gifts for Achilles. He asks Patroclus to drive the Trojans from the ships but no more or he will rob Achilles of his glory and will risk having one of the gods attack Patroclus. Ajax is holding his ground despite incredible odds, but it is finally too much for him. Hector comes upon Ajax and severs the point of his spear, thereby letting Ajax know the gods are with Hector, and it is time for him to retreat. This gives the Trojans the opportunity they need to throw fire at the ship. Achilles sees the burning and tells Patroclus to put on his armor while he gathers the Myrmidons. Achilles tells the men that now is the chance to let loose their pent-up rage against the Trojans. Leading them are Patroclus and Automedon. Achilles then uses a special cup to make an offering to Zeus. He asks Zeus to grant victory to Patroclus and let him return unharmed with his comrades. Zeus grants the part that makes Patroclus succeed in his mission of driving back the Trojans, but not the rest. Patroclus exhorts his followers to fight well to bring glory to Achilles so that Agamemnon will learn the error of not respecting the bravest of the Greeks. The Trojans assume that Achilles is leading the men and is now reconciled with Agamemnon, and since Achilles is fighting again, they are afraid. Patroclus kills the leader of the Paeonian (Trojan ally) horsemen, Pyraechmes, causing his followers to panic. He drives them from the ship and puts out the fire. While the Trojans fall back, the Greeks pour out of the ships in pursuit. It is not a rout since the Trojans continue to fight. Patroclus, Menelaus, Thrasymedes and Antilochus, and Ajax son of Oileus, and other chieftains kill Trojans. Ajax continues to try to assault Hector with a spear, which Hector dodges with his ox-hide shield. Then the Trojans fly and Patroclus pursues them. He cuts off the escape route of battalions near him and drives them back to the ships where he kills many. Sarpedon rebukes his Lycian troops into fighting the Greeks. Patroclus and Sarpedon rush at each other. Zeus looks on and says he would like to rescue Sarpedon. Hera says Sarpedon is fated to be killed by Patroclus and if Zeus steps in, the other gods will do likewise to save their favorites. Hera suggests instead that Zeus sweep him (once he is dead) from the field to Lycia for proper burial. Patroclus kills Sarpedons squire; Sarpedon aims at Patroclus, but his spear kills one of the Greeks horses. Two other horses of the chariot go wild until they are entangled in the reins, so Automedon cuts the dead horse away, so the chariot is once again fit for battle. Sarpedon throws another spear that misses Patroclus and Patroclus throws a return missile which kills Sarpedon. The Myrmidons gather Sarpedons horses. The remaining leader of the Lycians, Glaucus, prays to Apollo to heal the wound in his hand so he can fight along with the Lycians. Apollo does as asked so that the Lycians can go to fight for the body of Sarpedon. Glaucus tells Hector that Sarpedon has been killed and that Ares has done it using the spear of Patroclus. He asks Hector to help prevent the Myrmidons from stripping Sarpedons armor. Hector leads the Trojans to the body of Sarpedon and Patroclus cheers on the Greeks to strip and dishonor the body. The Trojans kill one of the Myrmidons, which enrages Patroclus. He kills Sthenelaus the son of Ithaemenes and the Trojans retreat, but then Glaucus recovers and kills the richest Myrmidon. Meriones kills a Trojan, priest of Zeus of Mt. Ida. Aeneas misses Meriones. The two taunt each other. Patroclus tells Meriones to fight and shut up. Zeus decided the Greeks should get the body of Sarpedon, so he makes Hector fearful, recognizing the gods have turned against him, so he flees on his chariot with the Trojans following. The Greeks strip the armor from Sarpedon. Then Zeus tells Apollo to take Sarpedon away, anoint him and give him to Death and Hypnos to take him back to Lycia for proper burial. Apollo obeys. Patroclus pursues the Trojans and Lycians instead of obeying Achilles. Patroclus kills Adrestus, Autonous, Echeclus, Perimus, Epistor, Melanippus, Elasus, Mulius, and Pylartes. Apollo now helps the Trojans, keeping Patroclus from breaking the walls of Troy. Apollo tells Patroclus it is not his lot to sack Troy. Patroclus draws back to avoid angering Apollo. Hector is inside the Scaean gates when Apollo, in the guise of a warrior named Asius, asks him why he has stopped fighting. He tells him to drive towards Patroclus. Hector ignores the other Greeks and goes straight to Patroclus. When Patroclus throws a stone, it hits Hectors charioteer Cebriones. Patroclus springs on the dead driver and Hector fights with him over the corpse. The other Greeks and Trojans fight, equally matched till nightfall when the Greeks grow strong enough to pull out the body of Cebriones. Patroclus kills 27 men, and then Apollo strikes him so that he grows dizzy, knocks the helmet from his head, breaks his spear, and makes his shield fall off. Euphorbus, son of Panthous, strikes Patroclus with a spear but does not kill him. Patroclus draws back within his men. Hector sees this move, advances, and putting a spear through Patroclus belly, kills him. Patroclus dying says to Hector that Zeus and Apollo have made Hector the victor, although he shares the mortal share of death with Euphorbus. Patroclus adds that Achilles will soon kill Hector. Next: Major Characters in Book XVI Patroclus - loyal friend and companion of Achilles in the Trojan War. The son of Menoetius.Achilles - best warrior and most heroic of the Greeks, although he is sitting out the war.Asius - a Phrygian leader and brother of Hecuba.Hector - champion of the Trojans and son of Priam.Sarpedon - king of Lycia, son of Zeus.Apollo - god of many attributes. Favors the Trojans.Iris - messenger goddess.Glaucus - a son of Antenor who was spared at the end of the Trojan War.Zeus - king of the gods. Zeus attempts neutrality.Known as Jupiter or Jove among the Romans and in some translations of the Iliad. Profiles of Some of the Major Olympian Gods Involved in the Trojan War HermesZeusAphroditeArtemisApolloAthenaHeraAres Summary and Main Characters of the Iliad Book I Summary and Main Characters of the Iliad Book VIII Summary and Main Characters of the Iliad Book X Summary and Main Characters of the Iliad Book XIII Summary and Main Characters of the Iliad Book XV Summary and Main Characters of the Iliad Book XXI Summary and Main Characters of the Iliad Book XXII Summary and Main Characters of the Iliad Book XXIII